- The global agarwood trade heavily depends on wild-harvested endangered tree species, despite international regulations for protection, with significant volumes going undocumented in official trade records, a new study reveals.
- About 70% of the trade depend on Aquilaria filaria and Aquilaria malaccensis, both threatened species, sourced from the wild, raising major sustainability concerns. Meanwhile, there are some tree species that are not even covered by CITES, the global wildlife trade convention.
- Due to discrepancies between CITES and customs data, along with weak enforcement and outdated regulations, researchers suggest the illegal trade is far larger than reported.
- Researchers urge stronger monitoring, updated data, expanded species protection, and a shift to cultivated sources. They also call on consumers and wealthy importers to support conservation and governments to promote sustainable practices.
Agarwood, a fragrant resinous wood commonly referred to as oud, is a prized constituent in incense, perfumes, medicines and ornaments and remains in high demand across East Asia and the Middle East–North Africa region. A new study has found that, despite international protections, the multibillion-dollar trade relies heavily on wild-harvested endangered tree species — some not even covered by CITES, the global wildlife trade convention.
The paper, published in March this year in Global Ecology and Conservation by researchers from the Hong Kong-based Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden, analyzed data from CITES and customs records between 2010 and 2020. They found that about 70% of the global agarwood trade relies on two species that are threatened under the global wildlife conservation authority IUCN: the critically endangered Aquilaria malaccensis and the vulnerable Aquilaria filaria.
Despite their threatened status, the study found, nearly 97% of A. filaria and 57% of A. malaccensis came from the wild between 2010 and 2020. “It’s quite clearly not sustainable,” agarwood trade expert Ian Thompson, who is not part of the study, told Mongabay on a phone call. “Until they get good data on enforcement and populations, the trees are going to continue to decline.”
Undocumented trade, overlooked markets
The study highlighted discrepancies between CITES and customs data. “Significant trade volumes from Indonesia to Africa remain undocumented in CITES records, undermining conservation efforts,” study co-author Huarong Zhang told Mongabay by email.
Millions of kilograms of agarwood exported to at least 10 African countries showed up in customs data but are missing from CITES records, suggesting a large volume of undocumented trade. North Africa, in particular, appears to be an under-monitored but important market, the study noted.
Thompson echoed these concerns, noting that discrepancies exist even within CITES records. “Even the data we have from the CITES database are very poor [and] inconsistent. If you try to compare the import data and the export data, they don’t match up … which means just a lot of illegal wood [is] being shipped out of the countries,” he said.
The researchers emphasize that the true scope of the agarwood trade is likely much larger than either the CITES or customs figures suggest, as the illegal trade was not captured by the study. To improve monitoring, they recommend integrating seizure data with CITES and customs records for a more comprehensive view of global trade dynamics. Stronger monitoring and enforcement are especially critical in countries like Indonesia, a major source of many traded species, the paper noted.
“There’s undoubtedly insufficient enforcement,” Thompson said, adding that although most countries have regulations in place to protect agarwood and other threatened tree species, these are rarely enforced effectively. “Wood crosses borders quickly and easily. Without better enforcement everywhere, illegal wood will continue to flow,” he said, highlighting the need for improved action on all threatened agarwood genera, including Aquilaria and Gyrinops.
The study also underscored the importance of combining CITES trade data with IUCN conservation assessments to identify at-risk species that remain unlisted or inadequately regulated. With some agarwood-producing species still unassessed, further research is needed to evaluate their conservation status and trade pressures.
To ensure the agarwood trade is legal and sustainable, the paper advocated training customs staff in technologies like digital permits, DNA barcoding and isotope testing. These tools can help detect errors in trade records, verify species identity, and reduce illegal trade, Zhang explained.
Expanding protection, listing at-risk species
While many agarwood-producing species in the Aquilaria and Gyrinops genera are protected under CITES, some species, like Aetoxylon sympetalum, remain unlisted despite facing similar threats. Zhang said Aetoxylon is an “overlooked endangered species” and listing it under CITES Appendix II would help monitor trade and curb overexploitation.
Due to insufficient data on individual species, broader listings have been used. “The only way to save key agarwood-producing species is to list the entire genus,” Thompson said. However, such listings require a country — likely Malaysia in the case of Aetoxylon — to present a case at the CITES Conference of the Parties, with support from other nations.
One major barrier to effective protection is the outdated non-detriment findings (NDFs) used to assess the impact of trade on wild agarwood populations. While Indonesia and Malaysia have previously created these reports, they are now over a decade old, the study pointed out.
A proper NDF requires countries to provide reliable data to demonstrate that their exports are sustainable. However, Thompson noted that, so far, only India and Thailand have updated these findings. The study highlighted the need for increased funding and technical support to help countries update their NDFs and strengthen enforcement.
Meanwhile, much of the international agarwood trade now involves plantation-grown wood, with more than 99% of traded Aquilaria crassna sourced from plantations due to the significant decline of wild populations of this critically endangered species. However, demand for wild-sourced agarwood remains strong due to its perceived higher quality, creating ongoing pressure on wild populations despite the expansion of large-scale plantations since 2017, the paper noted. “Without data to support the industry of cutting and exporting agarwood products, it’s unlikely that it is sustainable,” Thompson warned.
Major exporters, importers, path forward
Wood chips and powder, making up over 80% of the global agarwood trade, mainly come from Southeast and South Asia: Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Bangladesh and Laos are the top exporters. Key importers include Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Taiwan and Singapore, according to the study’s analysis of both CITES and customs data.
Vietnam, Thailand and Malaysia play central roles as both sources and transit hubs. They export large volumes of A. malaccensis and A. crassna, and also import agarwood from Laos and Cambodia for re-export to lucrative markets in the Middle East and East Asia. Indonesia emerged as the most connected country in the global agarwood trade, due to its extensive trade ties with major exporters and importers, the study observed.
Thompson criticized wealthy agarwood-consuming nations like Saudi Arabia and Kuwait for fueling demand without contributing to conservation. He called their lack of support a “selfish approach” and “an affront to humanity,” noting that while the trade generates billions, little of that wealth is reinvested in protecting the species.
“It boggles my mind that people are willing to consume, consume, consume to the point of driving the species to extinction, and do nothing to support the conservation of the species,” he said.
To make the trade more sustainable, the study urged targeted interventions in key trading countries. “Targeted interventions are required to mitigate their outsized impact,” Zhang said.
Zhang’s team also called on governments to promote sustainable practices, such as shifting to cultivated agarwood to ease pressure on wild populations. This shift, they suggested, should be supported by financial and technical incentives like subsidies and tax breaks. At the same time, they said, protecting wild agarwood populations remains critical to preserve genetic diversity and allow forest recovery.
The researchers said it’s also crucial to enforce policies promoting supply chain transparency and invest in consumer education to curb demand for illegally sourced products. Understanding and influencing consumer preferences in key markets will be vital to conservation outcomes.
“When consumers prioritize ethically sourced products and reject illegally harvested agarwood, they create market pressure for corporations and policymakers to adopt transparent, eco-friendly practices,” Zhang said. “By choosing brands that disclose sourcing origins and invest in reforestation, consumers directly support the protection of wild agarwood populations and their habitats.”
Thompson said these recommendations largely echo those in his report on the agarwood trade released three years ago — many of which remain unacted upon. While some CITES-level discussions have taken place on standardizing product definitions, he noted, little progress has been made on the more pressing issue of data collection. The persistent lack of reliable trade and population data, he reiterated, continues to hinder meaningful conservation efforts.
“If countries want to protect the species, the industry and the forests, they need to step up — collect solid data, submit valid NDFs, and ensure harvesting is sustainable,” he said.
Banner image: A new study has found that, despite international protections, the multibillion-dollar trade relies heavily on wild-harvested endangered tree species. Image courtesy of Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden.
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Citation:
Lai, K., Zhang, H., Yang, F., & Gale, S. W. (2025). Using global trade data to identify priorities for agarwood conservation and trade management. Global Ecology and Conservation, 59, e03560. doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2025.e03560
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